A new study of 1,300 climate campaigners has found that the criminalisation of direct action protests in the UK is counterproductive, increasing activists' determination to engage in disruptive demonstrations. The research suggests that arrests, fines, and lengthy prison sentences given to nonviolent protesters may actually radicalise them, potentially driving covert actions such as cutting internet cables.
Study Findings on Repression
The study, published in the journal Nature Climate Change, used anonymous surveys completed by 1,375 members of an Extinction Rebellion mailing list. It found that activists who had experienced repression—such as being jailed, fined, arrested, or surveilled—reported less fear of participating in future disruptive actions. Among those who had not experienced repression, emotional responses varied: those feeling anger or contempt about the prospect of repression were galvanised, while those whose fear increased had weaker intentions to protest.
Dr Nicole Tausch from the University of St Andrews, part of the research team, said: "These kinds of actions are counterproductive as they alienate people from the state. The emotion of contempt is really indicative of that. When people start to feel contempt, they tend to feel they don’t have to comply to the norms and rules any more. Repression might actually radicalise people – if you don’t give people the legitimate route to express their discontent, then they will find other routes."
Impact on Protest Tactics
Sunniva Davies-Rommetveit, also at the University of St Andrews, noted: "We’re also starting to see different kinds of actions, sabotage for example. Repression may possibly be turning people towards more covert types of actions." The research highlights that the emotional response of activists determines their reactions to repression, with those experiencing repression feeling less fearful and more likely to intend to act disruptively.
The UK government has cracked down on climate protesters in recent years, with some receiving four-year jail sentences for planning to block a motorway. The UN special rapporteur for human rights defenders, Mary Lawlor, has accused the UK and other governments of criminalising activists while paying lip service to climate goals. Research shows that 17% of all climate protests between 2019 and 2024 in the UK resulted in arrests, compared with an international average of 6.3%.
Public Opinion and Policy Review
A 2023 opinion poll commissioned by the University of Bristol found that 68% of the British public disapproved of the disruptive protest group Just Stop Oil. However, only 29% thought imprisonment was the most appropriate punishment for participants in disruptive nonviolent protest, while 37% favoured fines, and 15% believed no punishment was necessary. Ministers have commissioned an independent review of public order and hate crime legislation, expected to be published shortly, to assess whether it strikes a fair balance between freedom of expression and the right to protest with the need to prevent disorder.
A Home Office spokesperson said: "The right to lawful protest is fundamental to our democracy. However, protests should not cross the line from peaceful demonstration to serious disruption. Existing laws give the police robust powers to manage protests and prevent serious disorder, disruption or intimidation, while protecting the right to peaceful protest."
